Introduction
The Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS) is a 22-item self-report measure of a person's tendency to respond to depressed mood by focusing on their symptoms, themselves, and the possible causes and consequences of that mood. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema and Jannay Morrow of Stanford University developed it in 1991 as part of the Response Styles Questionnaire. It has received more than 5,400 citations.
In 2003, Treynor and colleagues derived the widely used Brooding and Reflection subscales from the RRS. This guide explains the RRS items, its scoring, its known limitations and its translated versions.
Key Features of the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS)
Purpose and Use
The RRS assesses how people respond when they feel down. Specifically, it measures the tendency to focus on depressive symptoms, the self, and the causes and consequences of depressed mood.
Target Population
The RRS is intended for adults aged 18 and older.
Structure
The RRS contains 22 items. Respondents indicate how often they think or do each thing when they feel down, sad or depressed. The items fall into three groups:
Item group
Items
What the items ask about
Reflection
7, 11, 12, 20, 21
Deliberate, analytical efforts to understand depressive feelings, such as writing down thoughts
Brooding
5, 10, 13, 15, 16
Passive, self-critical questioning, such as dwelling on past situations
Depression-related
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 19, 22
Focusing on symptoms such as loneliness, fatigue, poor concentration and sadness
Scoring Method
Respondents rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = almost always.
Total score: the original approach sums all 22 items, from 22 to 88. Higher scores indicate more frequent rumination.Subscales: the five-item Brooding and Reflection subscales separate a passive, self-critical form of rumination from a more deliberate, analytic one.Cut-off scores: the RRS has no established clinical cut-offs.Administration Format
The RRS is a self-report questionnaire, so respondents complete it themselves. A printable version of the scale is available from the University of Michigan.
Applications of the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS)
The RRS supports research and clinical work on rumination:
Screening: clinicians use it wherever rumination may be maintaining a problem, most prominently in depression.Monitoring: repeated administration across therapy can show whether rumination is changing; read change as a trend across several administrations.Research: it is widely used in studies of depression and psychological distress.Languages and availability
The RRS is in the public domain, so no permission is needed to use it. Users are asked to cite Treynor et al. (2003). Translations include:
Arabic: psychometric properties of the Arabic versionChinese: a Chinese versionSpanish: a Spanish adaptationRussian: a Russian adaptationGerman: the RRS within the German Response Styles QuestionnaireJapanese: translation and initial validationKorean: the RRS and revised 10-item RRS, with the revised version reported as more validTurkish: reliability and validity studyRomanian: validation in the Romanian populationReliability and Validity
The RRS has robust psychometric properties and extensive use in research. In addition, a 2003 reanalysis by Treynor and colleagues produced the Brooding and Reflection subscales, which have been widely adopted.
Validation studies:
A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (1991): study linkRumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis (2003): study linkLimitations and Considerations
The 2003 reanalysis and later work highlight several limitations:
Overlap with depression: 12 of the 22 items overlap directly with depressive symptoms, which can inflate correlations with depression scales such as the BDI.Masked dimensions: a single total combines Brooding, which predicted more depressive symptoms over time, with Reflection, which predicted fewer.Gender findings: women scored modestly higher than men on both subscales, and Brooding, but not Reflection, mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms.Trait-like measure: it mainly captures stable tendencies, so it is less sensitive to short-term change.Narrow focus: it covers rumination in sad or depressed mood, not rumination triggered by anger, guilt, shame or intense anxiety.No cut-offs and an ambiguous Reflection subscale: no validated thresholds exist, and Reflection correlates unpredictably with poor outcomes.Self-report and culture: results rely on self-report and may be affected by cultural bias.Other Versions And Related Questionnaires
Shorter versions include:
RRS-10: the 10-item Brooding and Reflection version derived by Treynor et al. (2003)Ruminative Response Scale–Brief Version: listed on APA PsycNetThese questionnaires are related:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7); see the ResRef GAD-7 guidePenn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ); see the ResRef PSWQ guideBeck Depression Inventory (BDI); see the ResRef BDI-II guideHamilton Rating Scale for Depression; see the ResRef HAM-D guideCarroll Rating Scale for DepressionCognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ); see the ResRef CERQ guideAdditional Resources
The original 1991 study: linkThe full items, in the 2003 reanalysis: linkA reference entry on the RRS (Springer): linkThe original and corresponding author, Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, passed away in 2013; the University of Michigan has published instructions for using the scale.Browse more depression questionnaires in the ResRef database.Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
What does the Ruminative Responses Scale measure?The RRS measures the tendency to respond to depressed mood by focusing on symptoms, the self, and the causes and consequences of that mood. Its Brooding and Reflection subscales separate two forms of rumination.
How is the RRS scored?Each of the 22 items is rated from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). The original total sums all items, from 22 to 88, and higher scores mean more frequent rumination.
What are the Brooding and Reflection subscales?Treynor and colleagues derived them in 2003 from ten RRS items. Brooding captures passive, self-critical rumination, while Reflection captures more deliberate, analytic attempts to understand one's feelings.
Is the RRS free to use?Yes. The RRS is in the public domain, so you do not need permission. Users are asked to cite Treynor et al. (2003) when they use it.
A Word from ResRef About the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS)
The Ruminative Response Scale (RRS) is a cornerstone instrument for assessing trait rumination, a cognitive process central to the development and maintenance of depression. Its robust psychometric properties and extensive use in research make it a highly reliable tool. However, its reliance on self-report and potential for cultural bias should be considered when interpreting results.
References
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1), 115–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023910315561Hasegawa, A. (2013). Translation and Initial Validation of the Japanese Version of the Ruminative Responses Scale. Psychological Reports, 112(3), 716–726. https://doi.org/10.2466/02.08.pr0.112.3.716-726Lee, S., & Kim, W. (2014). Cross-Cultural Adaptation, Reliability, and Validity of the Revised Korean Version of Ruminative Response Scale. Psychiatry Investigation, 11(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2014.11.1.59Bürger, C., & Kühner, C. (2007). Copingstile im Umgang mit depressiver Stimmung. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 36(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1026/1616-3443.36.1.36