Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS): A Full Guide for Researchers and Clinicians.
By ResRef
Published
Learn about the Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS): what it measures, how it is scored and interpreted, and how researchers and clinicians use it.
Introduction
The Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS) is a foundational patient-reported outcome measure designed for assessing maladaptive self-regulatory attitudes associated with vulnerability to depression. This scale evaluates both cognitive patterns and the real-life impact of self-evaluative attitudes on psychological well-being. Consequently, it has become a trusted standard in clinical practice and research, boasting over 380 citations on Google Scholar. It was developed by Charles S. Carver and Ronald J. Ganellen and originally published in 1983 in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, with a revised version later published in 1988 in the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.
This article emphasizes the ATS’s value as a validated, practical, and scalable instrument—psychometric studies, including significant cross-cultural adaptations, further support its reliability and broad applicability.
Key Features of the Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS)
Purpose and Use
The primary purpose of the Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS) is to measure maladaptive self-regulatory attitudes associated with vulnerability to depression. This targeted assessment of core cognitive vulnerabilities provides a structured framework for evaluating critical aspects of mental health management in both clinical and research contexts. Consequently, this leads to more targeted interventions and objective tracking of patient outcomes.
Target Population
The Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS) is validated for use with adults aged 18 and older. Its target population specifically includes:
Students (College/University)Adults and young adults (18–24 years), especially those in general or clinical samples relevant to depression or mood disordersStructure
The original ATS was developed from a 27-item pool and finalized as an 18-item self-report scale. It is structured to assess three clinically meaningful subscales:
High Standards (7 items): Measures perfectionistic goals.Self-Criticism (4 items): Assesses punitive self-reactions.Overgeneralization (7 items): explore the severe overgeneralization of personal failures.Because these specific domains map perfectly to real-world cognitive experiences, the ATS remains particularly effective within rigorous research workflows.
Scoring Method
The Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS) asks respondents to rate their internal attitudes using a 5-point Likert scale. Consequently, patients select responses ranging from:
1 = extremely untrue5 = extremely trueResearchers calculate the final scores by simply summing the individual item values. Therefore, higher total scores strongly indicate more severe maladaptive self-evaluative attitudes. Currently, researchers have not established definitive cut-off threshold scores for diagnosis. Thus, clinicians usually interpret the results relative to baseline measurements established during earlier trial phases.
Administration Format
The ATS is a flexible, self-administered questionnaire that requires no specialized advanced training to interpret. It may be administered in multiple formats, including:
Paper-based formatsDigital (Online)Most participants complete the ATS in 5 to 10 minutes, which makes it particularly attractive for high-volume clinical workflows and longitudinal study designs.
Applications of the Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS)
Because it is fast, standardized, and widely validated, the ATS is frequently used in both clinical and academic psychiatry:
Screening: Identifying individuals with cognitive vulnerability to depression.Research: Used as a measure in studies exploring cognitive styles and mood disorders.Importantly, while not a diagnostic tool, the ATS is a valuable instrument for both clinical researchers and clinicians interested in cognitive patterns underlying mood disorders.
Languages and availability
The ATS has been utilized successfully across multiple research contexts worldwide. Validated or officially published versions include:
English (Original)Italian (ATS-R)The ATS is a proprietary instrument, with copyright ownership (1983) attributed to the American Psychological Association (APA). Individuals planning professional use should confirm permission with the rights holder.
Reliability and Validity
The ATS is considered a highly reliable and valid instrument. For instance, the revised version (ATS-R) demonstrates a Cronbach’s alpha of ≈ 0.76–0.78. Since alpha values in this range reflect solid reliability, the ATS is well-suited for use in both clinical screening and research outcome measurement.
Original Validation study (1983). linkRevised Version (1988). linkAnother Related Validation Study. linkLimitations and Considerations
However, despite its strengths, the ATS has a few limitations:
Self-report Measure: Respondents may be influenced by social desirability bias or personal interpretation.Cultural Bias: Cognitive patterns and attitudes may vary across different languages and contexts.Language Barriers: Validation in non-English languages is currently restricted to select versions like the Italian adaptation.Social Desirability Bias: Patients might actively underreport symptoms due to expectation effects.Other Versions And Related Questionnaires
The questionnaire also features a recognized shorter version:
ATS-Revised (ATS-R): A 10-item abbreviated revision focusing heavily on the Generalization factor.Additionally, the ATS is frequently compared or used alongside other instruments, including:
Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS)Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC)Additional Resources
A direct link to the Original Validation Study. linkFor inquiries, contact the APA permissions pageFor additional ATS resources, consult research on cognitive responses to failure or tendencies toward mania and depression.Depression and cognitive style: Comparisons between measures. linkFrequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Who can use the ATS?Clinicians, researchers, and healthcare providers use the ATS for adults aged 18 and older, particularly students and clinical samples relevant to mood disorders.
How long does it take to complete the ATS?Patients typically take 5 to 10 minutes to complete the ATS, which makes it highly feasible for use in clinical and research settings.
How is the ATS administered?Healthcare teams can administer the questionnaire via paper-based or digital formats, offering flexibility in usage.
Is there any cost to using the ATS?The ATS is a proprietary instrument; permission for professional or commercial use should be sought through the American Psychological Association (APA).
A Word from ResRef about the Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS)
The Attitudes Toward Self Scale (ATS) is a psychological questionnaire designed to assess self-critical and perfectionistic attitudes that contribute to depression risk. It measures three cognitive patterns—high standards, self-criticism, and overgeneralization—using a Likert-type response format.
References
Innamorati, M., Tamburello, S., Contardi, A., Imperatori, C., Tamburello, A., Saggino, A., & Balsamo, M. (2013). Psychometric Properties of the Attitudes toward Self-Revised in Italian Young Adults. Depression research and treatment, 2013, 209216. linkCarver, C. S., & Ganellen, R. J. (1983). Depression and components of self-punitiveness: high standards, self-criticism, and overgeneralization. Journal of abnormal psychology, 92(3), 330–337. linkCarver, C. S., Voie, L. L., Kuhl, J., & Ganellen, R. J. (1988). Cognitive concomitants of depression: A further examination of the roles of generalization, high standards, and self-criticism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7(4), 350-365. linkCarver C. S. (1998). Generalization, adverse events, and development of depressive symptoms. Journal of personality, 66(4), 607–619. linkEisner, L. R., Johnson, S. L., & Carver, C. S. (2008). Cognitive responses to failure and success relate uniquely to bipolar depression versus mania. Journal of abnormal psychology, 117(1), 154–163. linkCarver, C. S., & Johnson, S. L. (2009). Tendencies Toward Mania and Tendencies Toward Depression Have Distinct Motivational, Affective, and Cognitive Correlates. Cognitive therapy and research, 33(6), 552–569. linkCarver, C. S., Ganellen, R. J., & Behar-Mitrani, V. (1985). Depression and cognitive style: comparisons between measures. Journal of personality and social psychology, 49(3), 722–728. link